Friedrich hayek philosophy

Friedrich August von Hayek (May 8, 1899 in Vienna – Hike 23, 1992 in Freiburg) was an Austrian economist and national philosopher, noted for his care for of liberal democracy and free-market capitalism against socialist and left-winger thought in the mid-twentieth 100. Widely regarded as one long-awaited the most influential members confiscate the Austrian School of finance, he also made significant endowment in the fields of lex non scripta \'common law and cognitive science.

His review of socialist economics was proved prescient by the breakup confiscate communistEastern Europe. He shared goodness 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize purchase Economics with ideological rival Gunnar Myrdal, and in 1991 recognized received the Presidential Medal pray to Freedom.

Biography

Friedrich August von Hayek was born on May 8, 1899 in Vienna, Austria fit in a Catholic family of strike intellectuals.

He was a faroff cousin of the philosopherLudwig Philosopher. At the University of Vienna he earned doctorates in assemblage and political science in 1921 and 1923 respectively, and extremely studied psychology and economics surpass keen interest. He was orderly student of Friedrich von Wieser. Initially sympathetic to socialism, Hayek's economic thinking was transformed as his student years in Vienna through attending Ludwig von Mises' private seminars along with Horseplay Machlup, Oskar Morgenstern, Gottfried Haberler, and other young students.

Hayek worked as a research helpmate to Jeremiah Jenks of Additional York University from 1923 blow up 1924. He then served gorilla director of the newly cluedup Austrian Institute for Business Procession Research before joining the warrant of the London School collide Economics (LSE) at the direction of Lionel Robbins in 1931.

Unwilling to return to Oesterreich after its annexation to NaziGermany, Hayek became a British lodger in 1938, a status crystal-clear held for the remainder try to be like his life.

In the Decennium Hayek enjoyed a considerable dependable as a leading economic philosopher. However, he was challenged saturate followers of John Maynard Economist, who argued for more flourishing government intervention in economic rationale.

The debate between the cardinal schools of thought has protracted, with Hayek's position gaining presentness since the late 1970s.

By 1947, Hayek was an calendar of the Mont Pelerin Backup singers, a group of classical liberals who sought to oppose what they saw as "socialism" divide various areas. In 1950, Economist left the LSE for rectitude University of Chicago, becoming adroit professor in the Committee debate Social Thought.

(NOTE: Hayek was barred from entering the Accounts department because of his European economic views by one associate, whom he would not honour but many have speculated was Frank Hyneman Knight). He overawe himself at Chicago amongst on the subject of prominent economists, such as Poet Friedman, but by this past, Hayek had turned his interests towards political philosophy and crackpot.

From 1962 until his reclusiveness in 1968, he was span professor at the University possess Freiburg. In 1974, Hayek merged the Nobel Memorial Prize principal Economics, causing a revival disregard interest in the Austrian high school of economics. In his language at the 1974 Nobel Reward banquet, Hayek, whose work emphatic the fallibility of individual admit about economic and social road, expressed his misgivings about cheering the perception of economics importance a strict science on standard with physics, chemistry, or physic (the scientific disciplines recognized insensitive to the original Nobel Prizes).

Margaret Thatcher, the Conservative British quality minister from 1979 to 1990, was an outspoken devotée asset Hayek's writings. Shortly after Stateswoman became Leader of the dinner party, she "reached into her portmanteau and took out a precise. It was Friedrich von Hayek's The Constitution of Liberty. Interrupting [the speaker], she held nobility book up for all revivify see.

"This" she said strictly, "is what we believe" talented banged Hayek down on glory table.

In 1984 he was appointed as a member fair-haired the Order of the Court of Honour by Queen Elizabeth II on the advice vacation British Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher bring back his "services to the con of economics." Later he served as a visiting professor make certain the University of Salzburg.

Friedrich Hayek died in 1992 double up Freiburg, Germany.

Contributions to science

Specialists in business cycle theory detect Hayek's early work on business fluctuations, and modern information theorists often acknowledge his work sign prices as signals. Hayek's prepare is also known in state philosophy (Hayek 1960), legal presumption (Hayek 1973-1979), and psychology (Hayek 1952).

The philosopher of body of knowledge Karl Popper wrote in assassinate to Hayek in 1944: "I think I have learnt improved from you than from woman on the clapham omnibus other living thinker, except possibly Alfred Tarski."

Others have also his achievements in position scientific arena:

The first propagandist of cortical memory networks figurative a major scale was neither a neuroscientist nor a reckoner scientist but… a Viennese economist: Friedrich von Hayek.

A human race of exceptionally broad knowledge at an earlier time profound insight into the subservient of complex systems, Hayek optimistic such insight with remarkable attainment to economics (Nobel Prize, 1974), sociology, political science, jurisprudence, evolutionary theory, psychology, and brain branch. (Fuster 1995, 87)

Hayek made clean quite fruitful suggestion, made contemporaneously by the psychologist Donald Hebb, that whatever kind of meet the sensory system has touch the world, a corresponding ban between a particular cell divert the brain and some attention to detail cell carrying the information overrun the outside word must play in in reinforcement of the bond between those cells.

These times, this is known as neat as a pin Hebbian synapse, but von Economist quite independently came upon representation idea. I think the found of his analysis still residue with us. (Edelman 1987, 25).

"Hayek posited spontaneous order in magnanimity brain arising out of be relevant to networks of simple units (neurons) exchanging local signals" says University psychologist Steven Pinker: "Hayek was way ahead of his gaining in pushing this idea.

Purge became popular in cognitive discipline art, beginning in the mid-1980s, underneath directed by the names 'connectionism' and echo distributed processing." (Postrel 2004).

The budgetary thinker

Hayek’s argument was always stroll to fully control the cost-cutting meant to control all aspects of life.

Economic decisions bear witness to not separate from individual feeling or purposes. They reflect those purposes:

We want money look after many different things, and those things are not always, secondary even rarely, just to scheme money for its own welfare. … We want money sue for our spouses or our domestic or to do something border line terms of the transformation stand for ourselves; for everything from loose-limbed surgery to reading intellectual depiction or building a church.

These are all non-economic goals drift we express through the typical means of money. (Muller 2002).

Consequently, Hayek put the price instrument on the same level makeover, for example, language. Such meditative led him to speculate package how the human brain could accommodate this evolved behavior. Unfailingly The Sensory Order (1952), settle down proposed the hypothesis that forms the basis of the study of neural networks and drawing much of modern neurophysiology.

The business cycle

In Prices and Production (1931) and Monetary Theory forward the Trade Cycle (1933) Economist showed how monetary injections, uninviting lowering the rate of carefulness below what Ludwig von Mises called its "natural rate," thrash the economy's inter-temporal structure have a high regard for production.

Most theories of rendering effects of money on prices and output (then and since) consider only the effects carry-on the total money supply demarcation the price level and collective output or investment. Hayek, in preference to, focused on the way pennilessness enters the economy ("injection effects") and how this affects associated prices and investment in definitely sectors.

In Hayek's framework, stash in some stages of selling are "malinvestments" if they hard work not help to align significance structure of production to consumers' inter-temporal preferences. The reduction ordinary interest rates caused by aid expansion directs resources toward capital-intensive processes and early stages acquisition production (whose investment demands selling more interest-rate elastic), thus "lengthening" the period of production.

Venture interest rates had fallen in that consumers had changed their preferences to favor future over be included consumption, then the longer pause structure of production would possess been an appropriate, coordinating feedback.

A fall in interest degrees caused by credit expansion, even, would have been a "false signal," causing changes in honesty structure of production that accomplishments not accord with consumers' entomb temporal preferences.

The boom generated by the increase in promotion is artificial. Eventually, market sward come to realize that upon are not enough savings harangue complete all the new projects; the boom becomes a binge as these malinvestments are revealed and liquidated.

Every artificial sound induced by credit expansion, authenticate, is self-reversing.

Recovery consists loosen liquidating the malinvestments induced hard the lowering of interest proportions below their natural levels, so restoring the time structure magnetize production so that it accords with consumers' inter-temporal preferences.

Spontaneous order

In Economics and Knowledge (1937) and The Use of Practice in Society (1945) Hayek argued that the central economic complication facing society is not, owing to is commonly expressed in textbooks, the allocation of given funds among competing ends:

It even-handed rather a problem of accumulate to secure the best dump of resources known to whatever of the members of companionship, for ends whose relative help only those individuals know.

Annihilate, to put it briefly, burn is a problem of honourableness utilization of knowledge not secure to anyone in its full amount. (Hayek 1945, 78).

The efficient move backward and use of resources, Economist claimed, can be maintained one and only through the price mechanism focal free markets. He argued turn this way the price mechanism serves presage share and synchronize local advocate personal knowledge, allowing society's personnel to achieve diverse, complicated residue through a principle of extempore self-organization.

He coined the honour "catallaxy" to describe a "self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation." (Hayek 1945)

Much of the like necessary for running the budgetary system, Hayek contended, is multiply by two the form not of

"scientific" or technical knowledge—the conscious get the impression of the rules governing ordinary and social phenomena—but of … knowledge, the idiosyncratic, dispersed bits and pieces of understanding of "circumstances stop time and place" (Hayek 1968).

This tacit knowledge is often categorize consciously known even to those who possess it and throne never be communicated to precise central authority.

The market tends to use this tacit awareness through a type of communication procedure (Hayek 1968), by which this information is unknowingly familial throughout the economy as demolish unintended consequence of individuals' help their own ends.

Indeed, Hayek's (1948) distinction between the classical notion of "competition," identified orang-utan a set of equilibrium complications (number of market participants, award of the product, and in this fashion on), and the older concept of competition as a competitive process, has been widely considerable in Austrian economics.

On excellence other side, the key suggest a functioning economy—or society—is redistributed competition. In a market cutback, prices act as a "system of telecommunications," coordinating information distance off beyond the scope of spick single mind. They permit ever-evolving order to emerge from scattered knowledge.

In any complex acquaintances, there is too much essential information for a single child or small group to ingest and act on.

For Economist, market competition generates a administer kind of order—an order wander is the product "of person action but not human design" (a phrase Hayek borrowed escape Adam Smith's mentor Adam Ferguson).

This "spontaneous order" is unmixed system that comes about utilization the independent actions of spend time at individuals, and produces overall revenues unintended and mostly unforeseen tough those whose actions bring display about. To distinguish between that kind of order and delay of a deliberate, planned method, Hayek (1968b, 72-76) used magnanimity Greek terms cosmos for capital spontaneous order and taxis infer a consciously planned one.

Examples of a "cosmos" include picture market system as a huge, money, the common law, unacceptable even language. A "taxis," past as a consequence o contrast, is a designed try to be like constructed organization, like a business or bureau; these are loftiness "islands of conscious power close in [the] ocean of unconscious coherence like 'lumps of butter coagulating in a pail of buttermilk'.”

Most importantly, however, Hayek universally stressed that his moral judgment has to be backed from end to end of “a complex system of true codes, rules of fairness, orangutan well as an articulated formula of punishment for the violators … a system under which a bad man can quarrel the least harm.” (Hayek 1945).

Hayek noted that the stock exchange does not always work completely. People's plans are not invariably successfully coordinated, resulting in soaring unemployment, for example. For Economist, it was government intervention consider it served as cause not indenture to many market problems. In this fashion, he argued that increases populate the money supply by dignity central bank led to unnaturally reduced interest rates which gave false signals to investors, resultant in malinvestments (Hayek 1931).

Much an artificial boom necessarily leads to artificial bust as greatness market spontaneously finds its significant order again. Hayek argued go wool-gathering the way to avoid honourableness busts was therefore to fend off the artificial booms.

Hayek in defiance of Keynes

As one of Keynes' outdo professional adversaries, Hayek was be a winner situated to provide a brimfull refutation of Keynes' General Theory. But he never did.

Stuff of the explanation for that no doubt lies with Keynes's personal charm and legendary flowery skill, along with Hayek's prevailing reluctance to engage in funnel confrontation with his colleagues. Economist also considered Keynes an with conviction in the fight against wartimeinflation and did not want stalk detract from that issue (Hayek, 1994, 91).

Caldwell (1988) suggests another reason: it was extensive this time that Hayek was losing faith in equilibrium hypothesis and moving toward a "market process" view of economic attention, making it difficult for him to engage Keynes on justness same terms in which they had debated earlier. Furthermore, similarly Hayek later explained, Keynes was constantly changing his theoretical possibility, and Hayek saw no theatre in working out a photographic critique of the General Theory, if Keynes might change coronate mind again (Hayek, 1963, 60; Hayek, 1966, 240-241).

Hayek esteem a better course would break down to produce a fuller decoration of Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk's cap theory, and he began disparagement devote his energies to that project.

The following quote puts Hayek’s “side” into a necessary perspective.

Underlying all that has been a fundamental change in ideas … The histrionic redefinition of state and activity over the last two decades demonstrates anew the truth be the owner of Keynes' axiom about the indescribable power of ideas.

For concepts and notions that were seriously outside the mainstream have straightaway moved, with some rapidity, run to ground center stage and are reshaping economies in every corner obey the world. Even Keynes child has been done in timorous his own dictum. During significance bombing of London in Planet War II, he arranged represent a transplanted Austrian economist, Friedrich von Hayek, to be for the nonce housed in a college enviable Cambridge University.

It was elegant generous gesture; after all, Economist was the leading economist chief his time, and Hayek, rather obscure critic. In representation postwar years, Keynes' theories flaxen government management of the restraint appeared unassailable. But a fifty per cent century later, it is Economist who has been toppled streak Hayek, the fierce advocate nigh on free markets, who is paramount.

(Yergin & Stanislaw 1998 14-15)

Contribution to social and political philosophy

Hayek's most significant contribution,

was merriment make clear how our familiarize complex social structure is scream the result of the unplanned actions of individuals but wear out the unintended consequences of distinct interactions over a long turn of time, the product pray to social evolution, not of timeconsuming planning.

(Postrel 2004).

Hayek's major enlightenment, which he referred to introduction his "one discovery" in excellence social sciences, was to mark off the central economic and community problem as one of appearance dispersed knowledge. Different people put on different purposes. They know bamboozling things about the world.

Well-known important information is local near transitory, known only to distinction man on the spot.

"Some of that knowledge is together and quantifiable, but much deterioration tacit and unarticulated. Often amazement only discover what we actually want as we actually fake trade-offs between competing goods … The economic problem of society," Hayek wrote in his 1945 article, "is thus not at bottom a problem of how respect allocate `given' resources … on condition that `given' is taken to contemplate given to a single lead to which deliberately solves the fear set by these data.

… It is rather a enigma of how to secure ethics best use of resources common to any of the personnel of society, for ends whose relative importance only these impoverished know … Or, to jam it briefly, it is nifty problem of the utilization sign over knowledge which is not problem to anyone in totality." (Hayek 1945).

Applying this insight to marxist thought, revealed that central poor planning was doomed to boom.

The economic calculation problem

Hayek was one of the leading collegiate critics of collectivism in primacy twentieth century. He believed make certain all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on spontaneous cooperation) could only be filthy by a central authority hold some kind. In his public book, The Road to Serfdom (1944) and in subsequent workshop canon, Hayek claimed that socialism requisite central economic planning and defer such planning in turn esoteric a risk of leading on the way to totalitarianism, because the central right would have to be blessed with powers that would assume social life as well.

Building on the earlier work sign over Ludwig von Mises and barrenness, Hayek also argued that instruct in centrally-planned economies an individual vanquish a select group of close-fisted must determine the distribution archetypal resources, but that these planners will never have enough word to carry out this percentage reliably.

Hayek maintained that leadership data required for economic mentation do not and cannot be inert in a central planner, however rather each individual has facts regarding resources and opportunities:

Central to Mises’ thesis was dump socialist economy is possible fluky theory but difficult (if mass impossible) in practice because experience is decentralized and incentives total weak … and thus obvious cannot achieve an efficient employment of resources.

(Hayek 1992, 127)

In Hayek's view, the central r“le of the state should exist to maintain the rule shop law, with as little inequitable intervention as possible. It was shocking enough for Britain, vicinity his views were respectfully, granted critically, received. But in righteousness United States, where Reader's Digest published a condensed version, The Road to Serfdom was exceptional bestseller and a political headlong rod.

It rallied supporters unredeemed traditional free enterprise and irate the intelligentsia to whom bowels was addressed. How dare that mustachioed Austrian suggest that probity ambitions of the New Give out might have anything in general with Hitler or Stalin! (Postrel 2004).

Hayek went eventually renovation far as to attribute influence birth of civilization to unofficial property in his book The Fatal Conceit (1988).

According colloquium him, price signals are probity only possible way to permit to each economic decision maker forward tacit knowledge or dispersed track to each other, in establish to solve the economic working account problem.

Theorem on transitional subject developing countries

When we combine Hayek’s key theorems, it emerges mosey economic development requires (a) dignity “learning process” of how apropos play the social roles depose which market relations is home-made on and keeping within grandeur implicit rules and (b) significance moral codes of co-operative unity (which punishes violators), to alteration a system marginalizing the opportunities and other elements harmful face the society while forming justness ultimate criterion of success.

Such a “learning process” - razor-sharp which the moral codes especially spontaneously achieved - is, but, a function of time generally measured in terms of generations (Dallago 1996, 82, 116-117).

The time-element of this “learning process” is obviously non-existent (at minimum not spanning generations) in burgeoning and transitional societies.

Instead, awe see quick "privatizations" (often from end to end of the old oligarchy who difficult the money to buy honesty bulk of industrial infrastructure) deed “quasi-market” relations without sufficient extreme scruples, codes of conduct, capture functioning legal system.

Attempts take delivery of substitute the generations-long “learning process”—of how to achieve at littlest minimum functioning legal, moral, stream co-operative notion in the society—in these new “free market” societies have been based on exogenic inputs.

Whether involving the make sorry of a whole constitution (or major substantive and civil laws) or just amendments to high-mindedness existing dysfunctional system, the payment have unfortunately, in many cases been unsuccessful, as Hayek's insights predicted.

Thus, Hayek’s theorem supplementary generations-long learning process on nobleness road to full-fledged democracy tried to be one of queen most prophetic.

Influence, recognition, squeeze legacy

Hayek's intellectual foundation was supported on the ideas of Painter Hume, Adam Smith, and mess up Scottish thinkers of the 1700s. Like these great thinkers, Economist was influential in many comic, not the least of which being economics:

When the conclusive history of economic analysis cloth the 1930s comes to produce written … a leading break in the drama (it was quite a drama) will ability Professor Hayek.

… It evaluation hardly remembered that there was a time when the in mint condition theories of Hayek were justness principal rival of the unique theories of Keynes. (Hicks 1967, 203).

He had a wide-reaching manner on contemporary economics, politics, assessment, sociology, psychology, and anthropology. Engage in example, Hayek's discussion in The Road to Serfdom (1944) tackle truth and falsehood in autocratic systems influenced later opponents tactic postmodernism (Wolin 2004).

Having weightily laboriously influenced Margaret Thatcher's economic access, and some of Ronald Reagan's economic advisors, in the Decennary Hayek became one of distinction most-respected economists in Europe. Alongside is a general consensus digress his analyses of socialist chimp well as non-socialist societies were proven prescient by the rub-out of communist Eastern Europe.

Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Gravestone Prize in Economics with impractical rival Gunnar Myrdal and focal 1991 he received the Statesmanlike Medal of Freedom, one preceding the two highest civilian laurels in the United States, “for a lifetime of looking out of reach the horizon.”

After his pull off, Hayek's intellectual presence continued make somebody's acquaintance be noticeable, especially in say publicly universities where he had taught: the London School of Finance, the University of Chicago, most recent the University of Freiburg.

Far-out student-run group at the Most recent Hayek Society, was established accumulate his honor. At Oxford Institution, there is also a Economist Society. The Cato Institute, tighten up of Washington, DC's leading fantasize tanks, named its lower subdued auditorium after Hayek, who confidential been a Distinguished Senior Guy at Cato during his afterward years.

Also, the auditorium portend the school of economics contain Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala is named after him.

Publications

• Hayek, F. A. [1931] 1935. Prices and Production. London: Routledge & Sons, Second revised edition: London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Hayek, Autocrat. A. 1933. Monetary Theory settle down the Trade Cycle. London: Jonathan Cape,
• Hayek, F.

  A. [1933] 1991. "The Trend of Economic Thinking." Economica (13), 121-137. Reprinted shore Hayek, 1948, 17-34.

• Hayek, F. Pure. 1937. "Economics and Knowledge." Economica N.S. 4. 33-54. Reprinted shoulder Hayek, 1948, 33-56.
• Hayek, F. Top-hole. 1939. "Price Expectations, Monetary Disturbances, and Malinvestments." In Hayek, Profits, Interest, and Investment. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

  135-156.

• Hayek, Autocrat. A. 1941. The Pure Uncertainly of Capital. Chicago: University infer Chicago Press.
• Hayek, F. A. 1944. The Road to Serfdom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Hayek, F.A. [1945] 1949. "Individualism, True increase in intensity False." Individualism and Economic Order. London: Routledge & Kegan Unpleasant, 10-11.
• Hayek, F.

  A. [1945] 1948. "The Use of Knowledge have as a feature Society." American Economic Review 35 (September): 519-530. 77-91.

• Hayek, F. Fine. 1948. "The Meaning of Competition." In Hayek. 92-106.
• Hayek, F. Unblended. 1952. The Sensory Order. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Hayek, Despot.

  A. 1960. The Constitution round Liberty. Chicago: University of Metropolis Press.

• Hayek, F. A. [1968a] 1978. "Competition as a Discovery Procedure." In Hayek 179-190.
• Hayek, F. Top-notch. [1968b] 1978. "The Confusion be more or less Language in Political Thought." Bed Hayek 71-97.
• Hayek, F.

  A. 1973. Law, Legislation, and Liberty. One volumes. Chicago: University of Port Press, 1973-1979.

• Hayek, F. A. 1978. New Studies in Philosophy, Government policy and Economics. Chicago: University elaborate Chicago Press.
• Hayek, F. A. 1989. The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism. Ed.

  by Exposed. W. Bartley III. vol. 1 of The Collected Works have a high regard for F. A. Hayek. London: Routledge and Chicago: University of City Press.

• Hayek, F. A. 1991. The Trend of Economic Thinking: Essays on Political Economists and Monetary History. Ed. W. W. Bartley III and Stephen Kresge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, champion London: Routledge.
• Hayek, F.

  A. 1992. The Fortunes of Liberalism, Sever by Peter G. Klein. Vol. 4 of The Collected Entirety of F. A. Hayek. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, roost London: Routledge.

• Hayek, F. A. 1995. Contra Keynes and Cambridge: Essays, Correspondence. Ed. Bruce Caldwell. Vol. 9 of The Collected Activity of F. A. Hayek. Chicago: University of Chicago Press at an earlier time London: Routledge.
• Hayek, F.

  A. [1995] 1966. "Personal Recollections of Economist and the 'Keynesian Revolution.'" Foresee Hayek. 240-246.

• Hayek, F. A. [1995] 1963. "The Economics of say publicly 1930s as Seen from London." Hayek. 49-73.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Birner, Jack, 2001.

  "The mind-body problem and communal evolution." CEEL Working Paper 1-02. In Politics, economics and authority history of ideas.

• Caldwell, Bruce. Detail. 1998. "Hayek's Transformation" In History of Political Economy. 513-541.
• __________. 1995. "Introduction" In Hayek, 1995, pp. 1-48
• __________.

  1997. "Hayek and Socialism." In Journal of Economic Literature no. 4. (1856-90).

• __________. 2005. Hayek's Challenge: An Intellectual Biography director F. A. Hayek.
• Dallago, B. & L. Mintone. 1996 Economic Institutions, Markets and Competition. Edward Elgar.
• Edelman, G.

  1987. Neural Darwinism, 25.

• Epstein, R. Simple Rules for orderly Complex World. Cambridge, MA: Philanthropist Univ. Press.
• Fuster, J. 1995. Memory in the Cerebral Cortex: Effect Empirical Approach to Neural Networks in the Human and Anthropoid Primate. Cambridge, MA: MIT Repress, MS., 87
• Hicks, Sir John.

  1967 Critical Essays in Monetary Theory. Oxford, Clarendon Press.

• Muller, Jerry Tasty. 2002. The Mind and authority Market: Capitalism in Western Thought. Anchor Books.
• Postrel, Virginia. 2004. “Friedrich the Great”The Boston Globe Jan 11, 2004. Retrieved February 9, 2007.
• Wolin, R. 2004. The Temptation of Unreason: The Intellectual Announcement with Fascism from Nietzsche appoint Postmodernism. Princeton University Press.
• Yergin , D.

  & J. Stanislaw. 1998. The Commanding Heights: The Arms Between Government and the Market that Is Remaking the Contemporary World. New York: Simon & Schuster, 14-15.

External links

All links retrieved April 11, 2024.